Multimedia+Development

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Description and Uses of Technology
Multimedia development involves the evolution of media technology as a useful tool for gathering, processing, and synthesizing information for the purpose of increasing knowledge or the exposure to knowledge. Multimedia technology can allow a user to create a product of their knowledge that electronically presents information in a variety of media, or forms, such as: Digital or audio recording programs, such as Windows Movie Maker and Audacity, as well as a method for formatting and organizing information as in a Power Point or Prezi application. More recently, virtual learning through online coursework, Podcasting, and video streaming has become a powerful multimedia tool in the world of education to enhance methods of distance learning.

Important Findings on Student Outcomes
As multimedia technology evolves, so has the research on its effects on student learning. the 1996 study by Lee and Sullivan on "Developing and Implementing Interactive Multimedia in Education" presented many findings on the overall increase in student engagement and learning. In their survey, they monitored 200 high school sophomores in a lecture hall and provided them with a variety of multimedia-based lectures, including: graphics, interactivity, short video segments, and animation (p. 431). Their evaluation of the effectiveness of this multimedia was broken into two categories: effective and non-effective. Effective results were indicated by the whether or not the technology stimulated interest in class, reinforced understanding, and improved organization and clarity. Non-effective results were determined by a sense of restlessness in the students, lack of reinforcement in the content, and apparently less interaction with the instructor or teacher. The survey results found that about 76% of the students found the method of instruction to be effective, particularly in the area of stimulating interest in class. In addition to this survey, Sullivan and Lee also noted that the students who were exposed to this form of multimedia instruction had also overall scored higher on objective tests in this same content area. While most of these responses were in favor of the use of multimedia in the classroom, 24% had concerns about the lack of interaction with the instructor using this format (p. 434).

More recent studies also show that the use of multimedia in the classroom is a successful method of teaching. According to a dissertation by Gabriela Yamauchi, (2008), possible outcomes for learning through multimedia are that:

"(1) it is self-paced learning: the individualized pace of the learning allows students to break down the group instructional setting, which often inhibits some people’s natural progression (West & Crook, 1992); (2) it includes video/audio production: enhancing a learner’s interaction with the course material through less bridging effort between the learner and the information being processed; and (3) it provides autonomy in the learning process." (Issa, Cox, & Killingsworth, 1999).

According to Mihalca, 2007, when technology is systematically applied with proper planning and applying effective instructional strategies that engage students in crucial skills, such as cognitive thinking, verbal and auditory processing, and motor abilities, computer-assisted instruction is comparable to the effectiveness of that of a traditional delivery of teacher instruction. Doing so promotes a hierarchical task-analysis of lower and higher-ordered skills and subskills that maximizes effective scaffolding of content. Much of its current research has dealt with its effect on multimodal learning and has found great benefit for at-risk students (Mihalca, 2007, p. 117).

There are contrasting theories of the overall cognitive effects of multimedia such as film and television on students. The 'reactive theory,' according to Anderson and Lorch, (1983), claims that when a person watches television or film, their cognitive functioning essentially turn off and they become "affixed to the images...and [they] merely give themselves over to them." (Lumbelli, 2008, pg. 226). There seems to be a fear in some parties of education that using multimedia can turn students off to important efforts in critical thinking and comprehension. To these theorists, it is merely a tool for getting students' attention. Conversely, the 'active theory' supporters believe that such processes are "schema-driven" and that comprehension of content portrayed by a film or television show is ultimately determined by the viewer and not by the inducement of the media itself. The implications of this place even more responsibility of the part of the teacher to provide ample opportunities for making contextual connections between media and content being discussed (Lumbelli, 2008, pg. 226).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Issa, Cox, and Killingsworth in "The Impact of Multimedia-Based Instruction on Learning and Retention" discuss the role that multimedia in education plays in affecting student retention rates. Much of it is dependent on the balance between flexibility and control that the user has over the technology, combined with the implications that go along with understanding how the human memory works. The authors note four levels of interaction which, at level four has augmented the amount of control the user has in making decisions about his or her educational technology. Level one coincides with 'reactive theory' mentioned in the Lumbelli piece (Issa, Cox, Killingsworth, 1999, pg 281). This higher level of autonomy enhances the learner's memory to allow them to set up a framework of "guide performance" that creates boundaries for making choices in a multimedia assignment as well as establishing a setting for self-evaluation and reflection. This arrangement of responsibility and reward that comes from this independent work using multimedia can lead to a self-realization and sense of self-efficacy which will thus affect the intrinsic motivation the learner acquires.. In their study of high school and college students, Issa, Cox, and Killingsworth also attributed these factors to the greater retention rates found in lessons using multimedia versus lessons conducted traditionally in a classroom <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">(Issa, Cox, Killingsworth, 1999, p. 282).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Finally, many findings are expressing positive effects on personal development and student self-efficacy due to virtual learning using multimedia. Susan McClester, in her 2002 article on virtual learning, noted that such technology can "boon" shy students into more interactive dialogue, while challenging the more gifted students. It encourages students to develop better time management skills and an increased sense of responsibility for their work. As a result, such forms of learning can result in a greater sense of work ethic, self-discipline, and hence higher self-esteem.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Emerging Trends and Open Issues
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Interactive multimedia technology, or "interactive computing," as Gerald Friedland (2009) calls it, emerged in the 1960s and was used as a Computer Based Training (CBT) by teachers. In the 1970s, computers were used for tutoring purposes and led into the 1980s hypertext craze. Hypertext enabled users to click on a highlighted terms and be taken to a linked page futher explaining this term. The acclaim of hypertext, however, created a sense of disillusionment for many people, as the technology was slow and limiting. The 1990s revitalized this trust in computer technology as more usable forms of the internet and multimedia technology bundled with updated hypertext were coined as "e-learning" (Friedland, 2009). The result of e-learning has been an explosion of research in the fields of multimedia and technology research as well as a gradual paradigm shift in the way many curricula are implemented by teachers in schools.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Since 2000, research in "e-learning" as termed by Jui-long Hung in his article in the British Journal of Educational Technology has seen a drastic increase between 2000 and 2008. The United States and England top the list as leaders in distribution of such publications. According to this study, scholars, now in addition to early developers of technology designed for the classroom are spending time researching its role in the classroom. Moreover, studies are now focusing more on actual teaching learning and practices rather than comparing its effectiveness to traditional teaching. This implies that a general consensus has been reached on educational providers' acceptance of technology in the classroom as a mainstay (Hung, 2012).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">According to Friedland, Hurst, and Knipping, the increase in research and in implementation of multimedia use was marked by the emergence of Web 2.0 in the early to mid 1990s They note that multimedia technology has changed from simple lecture usage to more sophisticated, intelligent forms of operations. For example, multimedia has been used as an interface for handwriting analysis and tutorship in arithmetic. These formal incidents of "e-learning" are not without many similar examples that cross all disciplines of curriculum (Friedland, Hurst, and Knipping, 2008, pg. 54-55).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Multimedia such as online video streaming and podcasting has replaced the role of traditional classroom teaching in many instances. Online classes using such programs as Blackboard have lead to more distance learning and even entire curriculum and/or schools that operate virtually. According to a 2001 study by Distance Learning Resource Network, 14 states had fully operating virtual schools. (Friedland, Hurst, and Knipping, 2008, p. 54).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">According to Friedland's 2009 article in E-Learn Magazine, the recent, most common uses for multimedia in the classroom fall in three main areas:

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">"Extensive use of digital slide-show presentations, the utilization of educational mini-applications (for example, specialized software, dynamic Web pages, or Java Applets), and recording (for example, via traditional videotaping or automatic screen capturing) and/or transmission of classroom lectures <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">(Friedland, 2009).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">He adds in that podcasts and audio devices are also becoming quickly popular for use in the classroom.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Issues associated with the increased use of multimedia in the classroom mainly deal with the pedagogy that must adapt to a completely new medium for facilitating lessons. Classrooms must be updated to accommodate the most current technology. Resources must be available to provide this technology as well as to educate and train teachers in their proper and effective uses. Some teachers who are accustomed to more traditional styles of teaching may express some resistance to adopting technology in their classrooms.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">References
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Berlin: Springer. Bibliometrics. British Journal of Educational Technology, 43: 5–16. doi: <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2010.01144.x

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Cartwright, W., Peterson, M. P., & Gartner, G. F. (2007). Multimedia cartography (2nd ed.). <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Education (IJICTE). doi:10.4018/IJICTE <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">URL: []

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Friedland, G.; Hurst, W.; Knipping, L.; "Educational Multimedia," Multimedia, IEEE, vol.15, no.3, pp.54-56, July-Sept. 2008 . doi: 10.1109/MMUL.2008.71 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> URL: []

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Issa, Raja, Robert Cox, and Clifford Killingsworth. "The impact of multimedia-based instruction on learning and retention." Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering 13.4 (1999): 281. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Print. ISSN: 1943-5487 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">URL: []

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Jui-long, Hung. "Trends of e-learning research from 2000 to 2008: Use of text mining and bibliometrics." British Journal of Educational Technology43.1 (2010): 5-16. Print. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">URL: []

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Kobayashi, R. (2008). New educational technology. Nova Science Publishers, xii, 540.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Mihalca, L. (2007). Current trends in educational technology research. Cogniție, creier, comportament (1224-8398), 11(1), 115. ISSN: 1224-8398

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">McLester, S. (2002). Virtual learning. Tech & Learning, 22 (8), 24-36. http://search.proquest.com/docview/212106582?accountid=2909

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Pui Mun Lee; Sullivan, W.G.; "Developing and implementing interactive multimedia in technology and Networking, (1-60566-014-0, 978-1-60566-014-1, 1017.)

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Woolf, B. (1997). Multimedia in education - Introduction. Computers & Education, 29(2-3), 53.

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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Yamauchi, L. G. (2008). Effects of multimedia instructional material on students learning and their perceptions of the instruction. Iowa State University). ProQuest Dissertations and theses, http://search.proquest.com/docview/304635342?accountid=2909 ======

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Reviewed By: (Peer Review Name 1, Peer Review Name 2)